Overview
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Expect More Criminal Enforcement & What You Can Do to Minimize Your Risk
Antitrust cartel and related collusive scheme enforcement is poised to increase. Several factors support this: (1) the Antitrust Division (the Division) has a 10% budget increase for Fiscal Year (FY) 2021; (2) proposed legislation that would increase its budget by $300 million; (3) Democratic administrations have traditionally been more aggressive in enforcing antitrust laws; (4) according to the US Department of Justice (DOJ), last year the Division opened the most grand jury investigations in almost 20 years and by the end of 2020 had the most open grand jury investigations in a decade; (5) increased coordination with international law enforcement agencies, including the Division recently signing a number of cross-border agreements, maintaining active memberships in multilateral organizations dedicated to cross-border antitrust enforcement cooperation and a DOJ official recently noting they have been working at strengthening their relationships with international law enforcement agencies during the pandemic and they expect this to benefit international coordination on investigations and (6) as pandemic limitations on in-person investigative tactics subside (including search warrants and knock and talk interviews, among others), expect a return to overt tactics related to open grand jury investigations.
Historically, cartel enforcement has increased following economic downturns and substantial federal stimulus packages. For example, after the 2008 financial crisis and the 2009 Recovery Act, the DOJ filed 60% more criminal cases than in prior years. We expect this trend to continue in the wake of the unprecedented government stimulus packages passed in 2020 and 2021 and additional potential government spending on infrastructure. In addition to the increased resources, the Division has stepped up its criminal enforcement program with the creation and recent expansion of the Procurement Collusion Strike Force (PCSF), the expansion of criminal investigations and prosecutions into labor markets, higher expectations for corporate cooperators and new potential benefits for corporate entities with compliance programs addressing antitrust violations.
Below we discuss the sectors most likely to be implicated by increased criminal antitrust enforcement, the PCSF and what steps can be taken to prepare and minimize risk in this environment.
EXPECTED INDUSTRY FOCUS
Based on the trends described above and our recent experience at the DOJ, we expect antitrust criminal enforcement to focus in at least the following industries:
- Healthcare â The DOJ remains active in this sector with its ongoing generics investigations and prosecutions and other cases relating to market allocation and labor markets. In fact, all of the charged labor market cases thus far have been in the healthcare industry. The DOJ has stated that investigations and prosecutions for violations in the healthcare sector remain its top focus and stimulus spending will likely serve to increase the DOJâs attention to healthcare markets. Although healthcare compliance policies have often focused on other fraud and abuse issues, such as the Anti-Kickback Statute and Stark Law, compliance with antitrust laws â including for human resources â is now more critical than ever. In addition, the recently signed Competitive Health Insurance Reform Act significantly narrows the exemption for health and dental insurers from the federal antitrust laws.
- Practice Note:Â In January 2021, the McCarran-Ferguson Act (the Act), which generally provides that insurance-related conduct is exempt from the US federal antitrust laws, was amended only to the âbusiness of health insuranceâ (defined to include dental insurance), curbing the breadth of the Actâs antitrust exemption and generally removing the prior health insurance-related antitrust protections.
- Financial Services âIn addition to its historical activity in this sector, the DOJ announced last fall it intends to further âlean inâ and ramp up its focus on antitrust enforcement in the financial services sector. This includes forming an enhanced relationship with the SEC and signing a memorandum of understanding that permits the two agencies to confer and share information regarding law enforcement and regulation of competition in the securities markets.
- Labor Markets â Since the DOJâs 2016 proclamation that it intends to investigate and charge wage fixing and naked no-poach agreements as per se criminal violations, the Division has indicted three labor market cases since December 2020. The DOJ has also stated that investigating and prosecuting labor market violations is a âtop priorityâ and that additional charged cases are expected this year.
- Technology â Technology is currently at the forefront of aggressive antitrust enforcement but companies need to think beyond Big Tech platforms such as Google, Microsoft and Facebook as the DOJ remains focused on broader exclusionary conduct that technology and digital market companies engage in to prevent competition.
- Energy â The expected focus in this sector coincides with the Biden Administrationâs emphasis and priority on climate change and clean energy policies, as well as recent investigations and prosecutions in this area. (See: here, here, here and here.)
- Construction â The DOJ has historically been active in the construction industry, including its most recent charges relating to companies allegedly defrauding federal programs in the small business administration (SBA) context and public works contracts. (See: here and here.) With the Biden Administrationâs proposed $2 trillion infrastructure plan, we expect this enforcement trend to continue, particularly with the rise of the PCSF.
- Defense/Procurement â As discussed below, the DOJ is focused on collusion that victimizes the government and recently expanded the PCSF to include both a domestic and international focus.
THE PCSF WILL AFFECT MANY INDUSTRIES
Investigations and prosecutions relating to procurement are not just about traditional government defense contractors, rather, the PCSF is active in a broad array of industries that contract with the government, including construction, healthcare, defense and energy. The PCSF leads the DOJâs coordinated national response to combating antitrust crimes and related schemes in government procurement, grant and program funding fraud at the federal, state and local government level. The PCSF has prioritized trainings on recognizing antitrust crimes and red flags of collusion and to date has trained over 10,000 law enforcement agents, analysts, auditors, lawyers and procurement officers from over 500 offices and agencies that investigate a broad swath of conduct in numerous industries. The PCSF recently expanded its domestic reach and in 2021, we expect the PCSF to (1) further expand its platform with PCSF Global; (2) further build out its data analytics program and mine available procurement data, among others, to identify patterns that indicate or suggest collusion and (3) advance some of its dozens of open investigations to the charging stage, where appropriate.
Companies doing business with government agencies â even if itâs only a small percentage of their business â should expect increased scrutiny for bids and the bid award process, including potential changes to the bid award process. Companies should be attentive in ensuring their compliance with the antitrust and government procurement laws, particularly in light of the DOJâs compliance program guidance (discussed below). Based on our recent experience with the PCSF, companies can minimize their risks in the following ways:
- Carefully review and document any no-bid or high-bid decisions and provide business justifications for such decisions
- Have counsel review any decisions to the team and/or joint bid with other companies in advance
- Have counsel review any sub-contracting arrangements with other companies that bid (or regularly bid) on the same projects in advance
- Ensure bids are legitimate and pricing decisions are determined in good faith and without collusion
- Monitor the procurement process
- Understand the red flags of collusion (indicators, patterns and/or circumstances where collusion may exist) and other indicators that suggest to the government that additional scrutiny of the bid process is warranted.
The DOJâs recently charged cases provide insight into the breadth of future conduct the PCSF will investigate and pursue, both domestically and abroad and against individuals and corporations. For example, the Division has aggressively investigated and prosecuted individuals for allegedly defrauding the SBA for more than $250 million, as well as bid-rigging at General Services Administration (GSA) Auctions where the alleged loss (less than $70,000) is miniscule in comparison. The DOJ has shown its willingness to step into regional corporate conduct allegedly defrauding the government (See: here and here.), as well as aggressively pursuing allegedly fraudulent conduct on an international scale. (See: here, here and here.) Simply put, the PCSF is not limited to only large-scale or domestic investigations. The emergence from a global pandemic and the unprecedented government stimulus spending just as the PCSF is expanding its reach should bolster the PCSFâs efforts in the coming year.
Practice Note: In the Divisionâs ongoing North Carolina Drainage public works contract investigation, the indictment alleged bid-rigging between a manufacturer and its supplier, which is typically a vertical relationship and generally subject to the Rule of Reason rather than per se criminal analysis. However, the DOJ alleged the manufacturer and its supplier held themselves out as competitors when submitting the bids in question over a 10-year period. In a recent ruling on a motion to dismiss, the US District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina (EDNC) held that the allegations were subject to per se criminal analysis. This prosecution demonstrates that the DOJ is willing to aggressively investigate and prosecute competitor relationships that are traditionally examined under a Rule of Reason analysis and instead focus on the specific, alleged transaction(s) between vertical entities. Such prosecutions may be more common where joint ventures or similar teaming agreements are not in place.
WHAT CAN YOU DO TO PREPARE FOR THIS ENVIRONMENT AND MINIMIZE RISK?
Historically, the Division provided no credit to corporate entities for their compliance programs at the charging recommendation stage in criminal antitrust investigations. In a substantial shift, the DOJ announced it would consider corporate compliance programs at the charging and penalty recommendation stages and published its guidance for prosecutors to evaluate such compliance programs. (See: here and here.) More importantly, the DOJ now allows criminal antitrust violations to be resolved with deferred prosecution agreements (DPA).
This is a significant development and opportunity for companies to proactively consider and reevaluate their antitrust compliance programs. An antitrust violation can be costly â it may result in substantial criminal fines, potential suspension or debarment, the criminal investigation and/or prosecution of corporate executives, up to treble damages in parallel civil proceedings and reputational damage. An effective antitrust compliance program may entirely avoid, significantly avoid or lessen these costs. It may also allow detection of potential violations and provide an opportunity to seek leniency or ultimately receive a DPA if leniency is not available.
Based on our recent experience at the DOJ, the following corporate compliance considerations are critical:
- Establish a clear corporate policy of full antitrust compliance
- Encourage management oversight/tone at the top
- Conduct antitrust audits, monitoring and training
- Conduct risk assessment appropriately tailored to business and industry, accounting for prior antitrust concerns in industry and employees having high risk communications or interactions with competitors, and the use of technology and data analytics in such efforts
- Establish best practices for competitor communications/information exchange
- Be diligent. Adapt compliance program as necessary
With appropriately tailored antitrust compliance programs that will identify and detect potential violations, companies should be well-positioned to avoid or minimize risks from the expected DOJ increase in domestic and international criminal antitrust enforcement.
New European Commission Guidance: Acquisitions of Nascent Competitors on the Radar
Hendrik Viaene | David Henry
The European Commission wants to be able to block or conditionally approve transactions, mainly in the digital economy and in the pharmaceutical sector, even when the thresholds for notification are not met. In publishing its new Article 22 Guidance, the Commission has significantly expanded its ability to review transactions. Parties to a transaction, especially in the digital economy and in the pharma sector, should bear this in mind when strategising on deal timing and any potential remedies. They will also have to take into account the possibility that the transaction will be blocked. For third parties, this opens another possibility to stop a transaction, to extract remedies from the notifying parties or to even roll back an implemented transaction.Show More
What Happened
- Article 22 of the EU Merger Regulation (EUMR) allows for one or more Member States to request the Commission to examine any merger that does not have an EU dimension but meets the following cumulative conditions: it affects trade between Member States, and it threatens to significantly affect competition within the territory of the Member State or States making the request (Article 22 Conditions). Fulfilment of the Article 22 Conditions ensures that a merger has a sufficient nexus with the European Union and the referring Member State(s).
- Traditionally, the Commission has discouraged the use of Article 22 EUMR in merger cases that were not notifiable under the laws of the referring Member State(s). This is principally because the Commission considered such transactions unlikely to have a significant impact on the internal market.
- Recently, however, there has been an increase in the number of mergers involving companies that play, or may develop into playing, a significant competitive role on the market, despite generating little or no turnover at the time of the merger. This development has been found to be particularly significant in the digital economy, where services regularly launch with the aim of building up a significant user base and/or commercially valuable data inventories, before the business is monetised, and in the pharma sector, where transactions have involved innovative companies conducting R&D with strong competitive potential, even if such companies have not yet finalised, let alone exploited commercially, the results of their R&D activities. Because of the absence of, or low, turnover of one the parties to such transactions, they invariably escape assessment under national merger control rules.
- With a view ensuring that non-notifiable yet potentially problematic mergers do not fly under the radar of merger control review, on 26 March 2021 the Commission issued practical guidance (Article 22 Guidance) on when it might be appropriate for a Member State to refer such mergers to the Commission for merger control review.
What This Means
- The Commission encourages, and is more amenable to (discretionally) accepting, referrals in cases where the referring Member State does not have initial jurisdiction over a case, but where the Article 22 Conditions are met, particularly in, although not necessarily limited to, cases involving a transaction where one party:
â Is a start-up or recent entrant with significant competitive potential that has yet to develop or implement a business model generating significant revenues (or is still in the initial phase of implementing such business model)
â Is an important innovator or is conducting potentially important research
â Is an actual or potential important competitive force
â Has access to competitively significant assets (such as raw materials, infrastructure, data or intellectual property rights)
â Provides products or services that are key inputs/components for other industries.
In exercising its discretion whether to encourage or accept a referral, the Commission may also take into account whether the value of the transaction is particularly high compared to the current turn-over of the target.
What to Bear in Mind
Transactions involving nascent competitors in particularâespecially in (though not strictly limited to) the digital economy and pharma sectorsâare likely to increasingly be in the Commissionâs crosshairs. Mergers that until recently were unlikely to face antitrust scrutiny because of the absence of, or low, turnover of the target now may be referred upwards to the Commission for merger control review. Henceforth, this risk will have to be factored into any deal timeline.
With this risk on the horizon, and with a view to avoiding (potentially significant) business disruption, increased prudence is called for. Merging parties may wish to pre-emptively approach the Commission regarding their intended transaction to solicit an early indication of whether the transaction constitutes a candidate for referral under Article 22 EUMR. If the Commission does become aware of a transaction that, in its view, meets the Article 22 Conditions, it may inform the relevant Member State(s) thereof, and invite the State(s) to make a (discretionary) referral request. If the Commission subsequently picks up the referral, implementation of the transaction will have to be put on hold until the Commission gives the green light. Moreover, the fact that a transaction has already been closed does not preclude a Member State from requesting a referral to the Commission â although the Commission is unlikely to look into a transaction where more than six months has passed since its implementation.
The Article 22 Guidance also gives rise to new opportunities for third parties that have misgivings about a transaction which, up until now, would not have been reviewed and which, absent review, may have a negative impact on their business. It may be, for example, that an aggrieved third party sees that a transaction, which is not prima facie subject to review, will lead to higher prices or risks foreclosing it from the market, in which case it is encouraged to inform the Commission or the competent Member State authority. This may allow a third party pick up any âlow-hanging fruitâ by positioning itself as a potential purchaser for any remedies that are offered. Even behind the scenes, the mechanism enshrined in the Article 22 Guidance may open doors for third parties to secure strategic concessions from parties to an intended transaction to the extent the parties have not notified the Commission thereof.
Intelligently Evolving Your Corporate Compliance Program
Michael S. Stanek | Sarah E. Walters | Martha K. Louks | Michelle Lowery | Katharine O'Connor
All companiesâbig and smallâare collecting a tsunami of data. The US Department of Justice (DOJ) has now challenged corporate America to harness and analyze that data to improve corporate compliance programs by going beyond the risk profile of what has happened to better understanding the risk profile of what is happening. But where to begin? Artificial intelligence, which is already used to assist in the review and production of documents and other materials in response to government subpoenas and in corporate litigation, is invaluable in proactively reviewing data to identify and address compliance risks.
Takeaways
- DOJ expects compliance programs to be well resourced and to continually evolve.
- DOJ wants companies to assess whether their compliance program is presently working or whether it is time to pivot.
- DOJ uses data in its own investigations and it expects the private sector to rise to the occasion and analyze its own data to identify and address compliance risks.
- The data is thereâmountains of itâand the key is to find an efficient way to analyze that data to improve the compliance program.
- Artificial intelligence is an important tool for solving the challenge of big data and identifying and remediating compliance risks effectively, quickly and regularly, in conjunction with further periodic review.
BACKGROUND
In June 2020, DOJ updated its guidance on the Evaluation of Corporate Compliance Programs. The guidance, which was first issued in 2017 and updated in 2019, lays out a series of factors for prosecutors to consider when assessing the effectiveness of corporate compliance programs as part of making charging decisions and negotiating resolutions. The overarching theme of the updated guidance, which provides a roadmap for designing and implementing compliance programs, is a renewed emphasis on the substance and adequacy of resources made available to the compliance program. It also reflects a focus on the need to both continually assess whether the compliance program is working, and use data in a meaningful way to assess the program.
Leadership in DOJâs Fraud Section has âembraced, wholesale, the proposition that data can and does serve as a significant indicator of fraud, foreign bribery, and other white-collar offenses.â In November 2020, at the Latin American Compliance Conference, Acting Deputy Assistant Attorney General Robert Zink emphasized the premium that DOJ is placing on data analytics. Zink explained that DOJ itself uses data analytics in the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, healthcare fraud and securities fraud spaces to identify leads and potential misconduct. Zink went on to say that to the extent a company has âready access to data that could be probative of misconduct, [DOJ] would hope and expect they would avail themselves of the opportunity to mine that data to figure out whether bad stuff is happening.â And so, Zink concluded, âcompanies that invest and take the time to invest and develop robust data analytics programs are certainly viewed favorablyâ by Zink and other prosecutors evaluating corporate compliance programs.
OVERVIEW OF DOJâS UPDATED GUIDANCE: EMPHASIS ON DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
DOJâs guidance for corporate compliance programs asks three key questions, each of which companies should answer affirmatively to satisfy the Departmentâs expectations:
- Is the corporationâs compliance program well designed?
- Is the corporationâs compliance program adequately resourced and empowered to function effectively?
- Does the corporationâs compliance program work in practice?
In weighing whether a compliance program is adequately resourced and empowered to function effectively, the guidance instructs prosecutors to assess whether compliance and other control personnel have âsufficient direct or indirect access to relevant sources of data to allow for timely and effective monitoring and/or testing of policies, controls, and transactions.â The guidance also directs prosecutors to determine whether any âimpediments exist that limit access to relevant sources of data,â and, if there are, what the company is doing to address those impediments. The Department views this in light of whether a compliance officer has sufficient autonomy and adequate resources: just like having appropriate seniority, access to the board of directors, and an appropriate team, compliance officers must have a view into the business through its data.
In assessing whether the compliance program works in practice, prosecutors are again guided to evaluate a compliance programâs use of data. DOJ has explained that an effective compliance program will improve and evolve along with the changing risk profile of a companyâs business, environment, customers, laws and standards. A key way to ensure continuous improvement is to analyze corporate data and data from the compliance function itself, in conjunction with other methods of risk assessment and control testing.
APPLYING DOJâS GUIDANCE
In practice, the DOJâs focus on the use of data means two things for a compliance program.
- First, compliance officers must have access to the right kinds of data, and they must have the technical capability to do something with it.
- Second, a compliance program, according to DOJâs guidance, must timely and effectively monitor adherence to its policies, its controls and any transactions. It should also use this data to continually understand the risks faced by the company.
Basic email monitoring tools often do not provide the level of visibility into the business that a compliance officer needs. But, it often is impracticable and cost-prohibitive to set trained human eyes on large swaths of corporate data in the ordinary course of business. Using search terms often misses information in this broad context and still requires a significant manual review effort. The updated guidance admonishes compliance officers that they should address impediments that prevent them from meaningfully accessing and using company data, and there are tools that can facilitate overcoming these challenges.
USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
In 2020, roughly 306.4 billion emails were sent and received worldwide each day, and that number is predicted to reach 319.6 billion by 2021 with further increases for the foreseeable future. In addition to the ever-increasing number of emails, there has also been extraordinary growth in the use of collaboration platforms to support remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic. The number of daily active users just for Microsoft Teams increased from 44 million in mid-March 2020 to 75 million in late April to 115 million by October. The sheer number of communications presents a complex challenge for compliance initiatives.
Artificial intelligence (AI) helps address these problems. AI is able to analyze the data and extract a wealth of information quickly, without the need for humans to read an impossibly large number of documents or guess which search terms may be effective. Instead of spending time looking for the proverbial needle in a haystack or relying on a team of people to manually review documents to understand the story in the data, AI can expose that information quickly. When compliance teams use AI tools, they not only gain an early understanding of facts in the documents, they can also see what isnât in the data.
HOW TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WORK FOR A COMPLIANCE PROGRAM
Without any human input, AI can analyze the content of millions of documents and extract information like the emotional sentiment of a communication, the people and organizations mentioned or the social network connections among key players. Legal and compliance teams can use patterns identified by the system to point the way toward smarter search techniques that yield rich results. For example, unusual spikes in communication after business hours or with external parties could reveal inappropriate conduct. Or review could focus on documents with high negative sentiment or fraud signals that the system identified automatically. Visualizing the social network to see who is interacting with whom can also guide the direction of an investigation.
Compliance teams can also use machine learning to prioritize relevant documents and avoid review of irrelevant data. As a person indicates which documents are relevant, the system learns from this input and classifies the rest of the dataset for relevance, building a model tailored to the issues of the investigation. The system continually refines and adjusts the algorithm in response to reviewersâ input, and the most relevant documents are prioritized first. Review efforts can focus on higher-level analysis instead of spending time shuffling through an unnecessarily large number of documents.
Another effective approach is to use pre-trained models to classify the data. Pre-trained models are algorithms that have been configured for specific purposes. For example, a model for gifts and entertainment kickbacks may be useful for certain investigations; perhaps a model for pricing and fees is more effective in another scenario. Another example identifies communications with competitors that may show an implicit or explicit agreement. Pre-trained models can identify documents related to those topics without any human input, and they can be further adjusted and customized to fit the specific needs of an investigation.
As the volume of business communications continues to increase with no end in sight, AI is a critical component to a data-driven compliance initiative. Advanced technologies empower compliance officers to be proactive rather than reactive, finding potential problems quickly and mitigating risk to the business.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE + HUMAN INTELLIGENCE = GENUINE INTELLIGENCE AND COMPREHENSIVE COMPLIANCE
An experienced team of compliance, e-discovery and subject matter experts can use AI to gain insight into elusive or unpredictable activity that threatens an organization and that may otherwise have been undetectable. Meeting DOJâs expectations does not mean that organizations must constantly take on comprehensive compliance reviews. Taking a tailored, data-driven compliance approach will allow organizations to review their risk on a regular basis in a precise and efficient manner. When done in partnership with the right team, organizations can do so while protecting privilege and managing a full array of legal and reputational risks. This approach, when coupled with more periodic and comprehensive reviews of policies and procedures, can substantially decrease compliance risk and directly addresses DOJâs requirements for an effective compliance program.
Update on European Data Protection Law
In mid-January 2021, the European Data Protection Board (EDPB) announced by press release that it has adopted jointly with the European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS) written Opinions on the European Commissionâs drafts for new standard contractual clauses according to Art. 46 of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Art. 48 of the European Union Data Protection Regulation (EUDPR). In the near future, there will be two new sets of standard contractual clauses: one for the transfer of personal data between controllers and processors within the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EAA), and another for the transfer of personal data to third countries outside of the EU/EEA.
The publishing of the Joint Opinions shall be used as opportunity to give a short overview about the latest developments in European data protection law and a prediction of what is to come, with a focus on the health sector in particular.
LEGAL BASIS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE JOINT OPINIONS
On 12 November 2020, the European Commission (Commission) published two drafts of standard contractual clauses (SCC). The first SCC draft shall update the SCC currently in place, covering the transfer of personal data to third countries outside of the EU/EAA independently, whether only controllers, only processors or one or more controllers and processor(s) are involved (Non-EU SCC). The second draft is an entirely new set of SCC aiming to provide on the EU level substantive and procedural rules for the data transfer between controller and processor within the EU/EAA (EU SCC) (jointly New SCC). The EU SCC are based on Art. 28 para. 7 of the Regulation (EU) 2016/679 (GDPR) and Art. 29 para. 7 EUDPR. The Commission used these enabling provisions for the first time; until now only SCC have existed for the transfer and processing of personal data outside of the EU/EAA.
In the context of the New SCC, the Commission has requested the EDPB) and EDPS to consult on the New SCC drafts according to Art. 42 para. 2 EUDPR by commenting and giving advice on whether and how they might be improved. The EDPB and EDPS published their joint opinions in mid-January 2021 (Joint Opinions); they are available on the EDPB website.
BACKGROUND AND THE LATEST DEVELOPMENTS AS TO THE NEW NON-EU SCC DRAFTS
The planned update of the Non-EU SCC should be seen in the context of the latest developments in the area of European statutory as well as case law on data protection:
The transfer of personal data, which are undergoing processing or are intended for processing after transfer to a third country or to an international organization, may only take place, if (i) the data processing is legally justified and (ii) the transfer â including onward transfers of personal data from the third country or an international organisation to another third country or international organisation â takes place on the basis of one of the safeguards laid down in the GDPR (Art. 44 et seqq.) or the EUDPR (Art. 46 et seqq.). SCC are considered one of the possible safeguards to transfer personal data to third countries in compliance with the legal standards and requirements of European data protection law (Art. 46 para. 2 c GDPR, Art. 48 para. 2 b GDPR).
The current sets of SCC were issued in 2001 and 2004 and then amended in 2010 under the former Data Protection Directive 95/46/EC of 24 October 1995. The SCC have remained in place pursuant to Art. 46 para. 5 sentence 2 GDPR after the GDPR became effective on 25 May 2018. However, these former law-based SCC do not comply fully with the requirements of the GDPR and the EUDPR. An update has been long overdue, inter alia, as the current SCC do not cover all possible scenarios of data transfer outside of the EU/EAA, but only the transfer of personal data from a EU/EAA controller to a controller or a processor located in a third country. Furthermore, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) decision on 16 July 2020 in a dispute between Maximillian Schrems and Facebook Ireland Ltd (C-311/18), known as Schrems II decision, had significant impact on the data transfer into third countries based on SCC, for the United States in particular.
In the Schrems II decision, the CJEU stated that transferring personal data to third countries can not be a meant to water down the level of data protection guaranteed in the EU/EEA. With that said, the CJEU declared that the transfer of personal data into the United States based on the EU-US Privacy Shield, an adequacy decision pursuant to Art. 45 GDPR with regard to the United States, violates fundamental rights of European data subjects, as the US level of data protection is not equal to the protection guaranteed by the GDPR. Due to the CJEU decision, the data transfer based on the EU-US Privacy Shield had to be stopped immediately. Since then, a data transfer to the United States is permitted only if it can be legitimized by another safeguard pursuant to Art. 44 et seqq. GDPR. As to the data transfer outside of the EU/EAA based on SCC, the CJEU provided in the Schrems II case some important clarifications, too. Although the CJEU upheld in general the validity of the current SCC, the Court underlined that data exporters may be obliged to implement supplementary measures to fill possible gaps in the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals and bring it up to the level required by EU law. Consequently, controllers and processors transferring personal data to third countries shall be responsible for verifying, on a case-by-case basis, if the law or practice of the third country impinges on the effectiveness of the appropriate safeguards intended by the used Art. 46 para. 2 c GDPR transfer tool. The CJEU did not specify which supplementary measures these could be. To help data exporters with the complex task of assessing third countriesâ laws and practices as well as identifying appropriate supplementary measures where needed, the EDPB adopted on 10 November 2020 recommendations on supplementary measures (Recommendations on Supplementary Measures). The Recommendations on Supplementary Measures provide to data exporters a series of steps to follow to assess and identify the correct supplementary measures required in the individual case as well as examples of possible measures that might be adequate.
On 12 November 2020, the Commission published the drafts on the New SCC. The Non-EU SCC shall update the existing SCC, bringing them in line with the current EU data protection regulations and providing an answer to the issues arisen by the CJEU in its Schrems II decision. As to the latter, the Non-EU SCC contain specific provisions for scenarios in which third countriesâ laws will affect compliance with the Non-EU SCC and/or in which third countriesâ public authorities may request access to personal data transferred from the EU/EAA. These provisions in the Non-EU SCC, once the new SCC became effective, do not release the data exporter to assess and identify on a case-by-case basis possibly required appropriate supplementary measures, as the EDPB underlines in its Recommendations on Supplementary Measures.
From the date of entry into force of the New Non-EU SCC, controllers or processors may continue to rely on the SCC concluded between them before that date for a transitional period of one year, provided the clauses remain unchanged (with the exception of possibly required supplementary measures). In the case of relevant changes to the SCC, the data exporter shall replace the existing SCC with the New Non-EU SCC within one year.
Furthermore, there are sectors where the EU or a member states may rely on Art. 49 para. 5 GDPR and exclude by means of an express limitation because of important reasons of public interest that specific categories of personal data are transferred on the basis of the â current or future â Non-EU SCC to a third country outside of the EU or an international organisation. German Federal Minister of Health Jens Spahn used this exception rule in the context of his legislative empowerment to enact an ordinance for digital health applications â so-called DiGAs (Digitale Gesundheitsanwendungen) â introduced in the German statutory healthcare system in December 2019. Pursuant to Sec. 4 para. 3 of the DiGA Ordinance, the processing of personal data as controller or processor related to DiGAs may only take place within Germany, in an EU member state or in a country equivalent thereto and within a third country only if an adequacy decision pursuant to Art. 45 GDPR is available. Despite the question whether Sec. 4 para. 3 of the DiGA Ordinance is a legitimate limitation of personal data transfer and compliant with the requirements under Art. 49 para. 5 GDPR, DiGA manufacturers are not allowed under current German law to process personal (patient) data in the United States or use a tool or other services of companies, which process personal data in the United States, as the data transfer cannot rely any more on the (invalidated) EU-US Privacy Shield.
BACKGROUND AS TO THE EU SCC DRAFTS
As already mentioned, the New SCC Drafts comprise a version, which is for the first time based on Art. 28 para. 7 GDPR and Art. 29 para. 7 EUDPR, i.e., an EU-wide overarching SCC document for agreements between controllers and processors bound by the GDPR and/or the EUDPR.
According to the Commission, these new sets of SCC are justified by the interest of a coherent approach to personal data protection throughout the EU and the free movement of personal data. The new EU SCC can be used by natural or legal persons, public authorities, agencies or other public bodies in the EU member states under the GDPR as well as by Union institutions, bodies, offices and agencies under the EUDPR. Pursuant to the EU SCC recitals, the use of the new EU SCC is not obligatory. They are just one possible instrument to comply with the European data protection requirements for situations, in which (1) two controllers, (2) one controller and one processor or (3) two processors, all subjects to the GDPR and/or the EUDPR, are involved in the data processing. Alternatively, the controller(s) and processor(s) are free to negotiate an individual data processing agreement pursuant to Art. 28 para. 3 sentence 1 GDPR, provided that the agreement contains the compulsory elements laid down in Art. 28 para. 3 sentence 2, para. 4 GDPR, Art. 29 para. 3, para. 4 EUDPR respectively. The parties may also rely only in part on the new EU SCC and integrate other clauses or additional safeguards in their processing agreement given that the additional clauses do not contradict, directly or indirectly, the SCC or prejudice the fundamental rights or freedoms of data subjects. In scenarios in which personal data are both processed within the EU as well as transferred and processed outside of the EU in a third country, it will be finally sufficient under the New SCC that the controller(s) and/or processor(s) rely on the Non-EU SCC drafts only. The Commission points out this aspect in recital 10 of the EU SCC Draft by stating âTo fulfil the requirements of Article 46(1) Regulation (EU) 2016/679, the Commission adopted standard contractual clauses pursuant to Article 46(2)(c) Regulation (EU) 2016/679. Those clauses also fulfil the requirements of Article 28(3) and (4) of Regulation (EU) 2016/679 for data transfers from controllers subject to Regulation (EU) 2016/679 to processors outside the territorial scope of application of that Regulation or from processors subject to Regulation (EU) 2016/679 to sub-processors outside the territorial scope of that Regulation.â That is an improvement and overdue step to less paperwork for the parties involved, as the current non-EU SCC additionally require an agreement under Art. 28 GDPR or Art. 26 GDPR.
KEY CONTENT OF THE JOINT OPINIONS
The Joint Opinions of the EDPB and the EDPS comprise each (i) a core part with general comments and (ii) an annex with additional comments made directly within the Draft SCC. There is no hierarchy between the two parts of the Joint Opinions, but they are meant to complete each other and shall be considered together.
The Joint Opinions clearly show that the EDPB and EDPS understand their consultation role as an assignment to be a âpeer discussion partnerâ of the Commission. The EDPB and EDPS suggest corrections and at some points deletions to the drafts on the New SCC, but in particular they focus on those chapters in the drafts, which in their view require further clarification in the course of the ongoing drafting process. The EDPB and EDPS seek to contribute to the scope to publish at the end of the drafting process clear and unambiguous SCC, which can be easily used by everyone and do not need any further clarifications or guidelines for interpretation. This mindset runs like a golden thread through both Joint Opinions.
The EDPB and EDPS suggest, inter alia,
- To clarify whether the EU SCC shall cover only the processing of personal data between controllers and processers located within the EU/EAA or also situations where the controller and/or the processor have to comply with the GDPR according to Art. 3 para. 2 GDPR;
- To clarify whether in situations where several scenarios of the Non-EU SCC are affected and therefore several modules of the SCC must be applied, the parties can enter into one SCC document only or whether several documents are required;
- To assist the contracting parties with more clarity on how to rule comprehensively, but at the same time in an efficient way, on the rights and obligations of each party under the clauses, guaranteeing a high level of transparency with regard to the allocation of responsibility and accountability; and
- To clarify and complete the requirements for the parties to comply with the obligations, which derive from the Schrems II decision and/or which are described in the Recommendations on Supplementary Measures. The New SCC Drafts should cover all possible scenarios, in which third countriesâ laws or acts of third countriesâ authorities may legally or factually impinge the data protections rights guaranteed under the GDPR/ EUDPR.
PROSPECTS AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS WITH REGARD TO DATA PROTECTION IN THE HEALTHCARE/ LIFE SCIENCES SECTOR
Now, it is again the Commissionâs turn. The Commission has to go through the Joint Opinions and assess to which extent it will consider the suggestions provided by EDBP and EDPS. There is no timeframe for the Commission to respond to the Joint Opinion and either to consider the suggestions given in the New SCC or overrule them. Therefore, not only the question âwhether and to which extentâ the Commission will consider the suggestions, but also âwhenâ is currently open.
In the meantime, the EDBP adopted in its 45th session on 2 February 2021 its response to the request from the Commission for clarifications on the consistent application of the GDPR with regard to health research. The EDPBâs response is available on its website. The response is to be considered a first step to overcome some common misunderstandings and misinterpretations as to the application of the GDPR in the scientific health research sector. The EDPB underlines in its answers that most of the Commissionâs questions require further and deeper-digging analysis and a search for examples and best practices. Thus, the Commissionâs questions cannot be fully answered at this stage. Rather, The EDPB is currently working on guidelines on the processing personal data for scientific research purposes, which shall provide a more comprehensive interpretation of the various provisions in the GDPR that are relevant for the processing of personal data in this context. The guidelines shall be published in the course of 2021.
If you have any questions, please contact Romain Perray
What Are the Implications of Brexit in Corporate Law?
Renate Prinz | Dr. Philipp Grenzebach
Since January 1 of this year, the Brexit is final and, as a result of UK leaving the EU, the binding effect of EU-law no longer applies. But what does this actually mean for corporate law? We briefly summarize the most important changes for companies.1
IN GENERAL: WHAT DOES THE EU-UK TRADE AND COOPERATION AGREEMENT (TCA) COVER?
Essentially, the agreement between the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom (UK) covers three main sections: Free trade between EU and UK, judicial cooperation in criminal matters and arrangements for the prevention and settlement of disputes between the parties to the TCA.
- The free trade agreement between EU and UK not only regulates trade in goods and services, but also in digital trade, intellectual property, competition, public procurement, energy and the coordination of social security systems.
- It does not regulate judicial cooperation in civil and commercial matters;
- British companies no longer have the automatic right to offer services throughout the EU. If they want to continue operating in the EU, they must also be based there.
- All imports from UK into the EU are subject to customs formalities and must meet EU standards, they are therefore subject to appropriate controls. Special regulations apply to goods transported between Northern Ireland and the EU.
CCORPORATE LAW: WHAT CONTINUES TO APPLY, WHAT NO LONGER APPLIES
All rights and obligations that UK had as an EU member state (and during the transition period) no longer apply to it. Since EU legislation also affects many areas of national law in UK, UK has undertaken a comprehensive incorporation of European legal acts that existed immediately before the end of the transition period into national law (retained EU law) in order to avoid legal uncertainties. However, this does not apply to all EU law. In particular, the following are excluded from such incorporation:
- European legal forms (SE, SCE, EEIG): It is no longer possible to establish new European companies with their head office or registered office in the UK. Companies existing at the time of the UK exit were automatically transformed with effect from January 1, 2021, preserving their legal identity: SE became the âUK Societasâ, EEIV became âUKEIGâ. The SCE as a legal form ceased to exist in UK without replacement as there was no need for a transformation (there simply were no SCEs in UK). The previous legal bases (SE Regulation, EEIG Regulation) were incorporated into national law accordingly.
- Cross-border mergers (Verschmelzungen): The directive-based regulation enabling cross-border mergers was repealed with effect from January 1, 2021, so that a merger of an EU company with a UK company is no longer possible. On the German side, there is a transitional provision in the form of Sec. 122m Transition Act (Umwandlungsgesetz), but in practice this will no longer be feasible in the absence of a corresponding provision from UK.
- Cross-border change of legal form/ cross-border spin-off (Spaltung): The freedom of establishment pursuant to Artt. 49, 54 TFEU in and for UK companies ceases to apply and thus also a cross-border change of legal form and a cross-border spin-off which was made possible by the ECJ on this basis, ceases to be possible. Even without the implementation of the Directive on Cross-Border Conversion Measures (Directive (EU) 2019/2121), which has been issued in the meantime, the ECJ had enforced the enabling of these corporate law measures for companies within the EU, to the extent that they are also possible for domestic companies (ECJ, judgment of July 12, 2012 â C-378/10 â VALE; ECJ, judgment of October 25, 2017 â C-106/16 â Polbud).
- Branches: UK is now a âthird countryâ, so branches of EU/EEA companies in UK must meet the special requirements for those from third countries. The same applies to branches of UK companies in an EU/EEA state.
- Financial reporting: The International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) have been incorporated into UK law. However, amendments to the IFRS adopted at EU level no longer apply directly in UK, where only the UK-adopted international accounting standards now in force are applicable and must be taken into account by UK companies in their balance sheet from now on.
CESSATION OF THE FREEDOM OF ESTABLISHMENT â APPLICATION OF THE SEAT THEORY (SITZTHEORIE)
A company incorporated in EU with its administrative headquarter in UK can no longer invoke freedom of establishment, nor can a UK company with its administrative headquarter in the EU. What are the consequences?
- As a result, the mandatory application of the incorporation theory (GrÃŒndungstheorie) throughout the European Union, as pronounced by the ECJ, no longer applies in relation to UK. According to the incorporation theory, the legal provisions applicable to a company are those which apply under the law of the state under which it was incorporated, irrespective of the actual seat of the companyâs administration.
- In German corporate law, as in many other EU countries, the seat theory still prevails for non-EU companies (unless, as with USA, separate agreements apply). According to the seat theory, a company is governed by the legal system in which its administrative headquarter, i.e. the actual seat of management, is located.
- For UK companies with their administrative headquarter in Germany, German (company) law is now generally applicable. A UK limited company with its administrative headquarter in Germany now runs the risk of no longer being recognized as UK Ltd (or corporation a all) in Germany. The company would have to be assessed according to German corporate law, where it does not meet the incorporation requirements of a German corporation (especially a German limited liability company). Accordingly, it would be regarded in Germany as a partnership (Commercial Partnership (OHG) or a civil law partnership (GbR), depending on whether it operates a commercial trade (Handelsgewerbe). In case such Limited has only one sole shareholder, it would be regarded as a sole businessman (Einzelkaufmann) or co called âsmall traderâ (Kleingewerbetreibender). Anyway, it would lose its limitation of liability in Germany. This is particularly interesting for the Limited (UK) & Co. KG, which was quite popular in practice in the past and which always has its administrative seat in Germany.
- The legal consequence or rather the continuation of the incorporation theory for UK companies is quite controversial under the TCA. A clarifying regulation would certainly be advisable here, as the result of a strict application of the seat theory appears hardly manageable in practice.
- For companies seated in UK or in member states of the EU following the incorporation theory, this has no effect, as only the law of the respective state of incorporation continues to apply to the company.
***
â 1   Source and further references: https://www.bmjv.de/DE/Themen/FokusThemen/Brexit/Gesellschaftsrecht/Brexit_Gesellschaft_node.html, https://ec.europa.eu/info/relations-united-kingdom/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement_en (the entire agreement is also available here) (both last accessed on March 9, 2021); and Schmidt, Brexit: Implikationen des EU-UK TCA im Bereich des Gesellschaftsrechts, GmbHR 2021, 229 et seq.
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